Upon ingestion, astaxanthin is absorbed by the duodenal mucosa via passive or simple diffusion and transported to the liver by the lymph system where it is placed on a lipoprotein, the only way it can be transported in the blood.

From there it goes to its cell site where it attaches itself onto the cell membrane. Astaxanthin spans the bilayer of the cell membrane with its polar (water-loving) end groups near the fat/water interface where free radical attack first occurs. Because its molecular weight is under 600 Da (596.8) and it is a lipophilic molecule, this mechanism allows it to cross the blood/brain barrier.

The presence of hydroxy groups and carbonyl groups in astaxanthin help to anchor the molecule on the water/fat surface (intermolecular hydrogen bonding), thereby strengthening the membrane. It has been proposed that carotenoids are oriented perpendicular to the plane of the fat side of the bilayer.

Astaxanthin traps an alkoxyl radical in the central hydrophobic region (literally "water-hating" - the fat side) of the bilayer and the conjugated polyene structure (the long chain of the astaxanthin molecule that acts like a bridge) "transports" or carries the unpaired electron to the fat/water interface. Here the resonance-stabilized astaxanthin radical now reacts with a water-soluble scavenger such as ascorbic acid (Vitamin C).

The difference between scavenging free radicals and quenching singlet oxygen is that in scavenging, the reductant (in this case astaxanthin) takes the unpaired electron from the free radical and renders it harmless, that is, it incorporates the unpaired electron into its own molecule OR it donates one of its own electrons so the radical electron becomes paired, as is the case with Vitamin E. In quenching singlet oxygen, the reductant (still astaxanthin) takes the energy from an excited (charged) oxygen molecule and de-excites it (or de-charges it), thereby rendering it harmless.

Only carotenoids such as astaxanthin with a 4-carbonyl group will provide this form for reaction. A hydroxy group in the 3-position provides further stabilization through intermolecular hydrogen bonding to the water side and through intramolecular hydrogen bonding to the carbonyl oxygen.

While Vitamin E traps radicals by donating a hydrogen atom to them, astaxanthin adds the radical to its molecule (can add one on either end) thus allowing it to trap 2 peroxyl radicals per molecule of astaxanthin used. These trapped radicals are more stable than those trapped by Vitamin E because they are incorporated into the polyene chain rather than floating free.

Beta carotene scavenges only under partial pressures of O2 significantly less than 150 torr (normal air). Such low pressures are found in most tissues under physiological conditions. With higher tissue pressures, Beta-Carotene become pro-oxidant.

Astaxanthin also exhibits far greater anti-inflammatory protection where reactive oxygens are involved than Vitamin E. The mechanism of this anti-inflammatory protection is unclear at present but may be related to singlet oxygen quenching, which would protect against active oxygen-induced membrane damage.

Human Benefits - astaZANTHIN™ is the platform for a wide range of products and can address each of the following human indications:

• Increases strength and endurance (2.8 times greater increase over baseline versus placebo in human study).*
• Alleviates symptoms in patients with H. Pylori (pre-ulcer indigestion).*
• Protects cell and mitochondrial membranes from oxidative damage, thus protecting the cell from oxidative damage.**
• Boosts immune system by increasing the number of antibody-producing cells.**
• Prevents the initiation of cancer cells in the tongue, oral cavity, large bowel, bladder, uterus, and breast.**
• Inhibits lipid peroxidation that causes plaque formation, thus reducing risk of cardiovascular disease.**
• Alleviates oxidative stress** and crosses the blood brain barrier.** Therefore, may assist in neurodegenerative conditions such as AMD**, Alzheimer's, Parkinson's, and ALS.**
• Protects the eyes and skin from UV A and B damage by quenching singlet and triplet oxygen.**
• Reduces the number of new and abnormal cells in the liver.**

* Confirmed in human clinical study.
** Confirmed in preclinical studies.

• All natural Krill, lobster, shrimp, prawns, crab, salmon (usually 1,500 ppm concentration)
• Yeast - Phaffia rhodozyma (usually 8,000 ppm)
• Microalgae - Haematococcus pluvialis (15,000 ppm - 25,000 ppm)
• Abundant in Nature - also found in trout, crawfish, Pacific cod, scallops, mackerel, flounder, and other commercial seafood
• Renewable

Effectiveness and Synergies

• Demonstrated to be bioavailable in human studies.
• At least 10 times more effective as an antioxidant than beta-carotene.
• 100 to 500 times more effective in inhibiting lipid peroxidation as an antioxidant than Vitamin E.
• Greater anti-inflammatory capability than Vitamin E.
• Almost 4 times the antioxidant capacity of lutein.
• More stable in scavenging and quenching than beta-carotene, canthaxanthin, zeaxanthin.
• Most potent antioxidant in enhancing immune modulation.
• More effective than lycopene, lutein and beta-carotene in immune protection against initiation and promotion of tumors.
• Enhances the actions of Vitamins C, E and retinol.